Terms · 完整语法术语索引
跳转 → ⓪ 十大词类 动词分类 短语 vs 从句 五大句型 句子成分 时态(12+3) 语态(8) 情态动词(11) 非谓语(10) 名词性从句 定语从句 状语从句 虚拟语气 倒装/强调/省略/it 比较与并列 独立成分
这一页是整本「学英文语法」教材的术语索引。每个语法点都有:中英定义 + 拆解页 S-NN 例句 + 关键说明。看到不懂的从 breakdown 跳过来。
⓪ 十大词类 · Parts of Speech
每个英文词,都属于以下 10 类之一。识别词类是看懂句子的第一步。
1. 名词 · Noun
表示人 / 物 / 地点 / 抽象概念的词。可数名词有单复数(dollar/dollars),不可数名词不变(gold/inflation)。
名词在句中可作:主语、宾语、表语、补语、定语、同位语。
S-001 名词 = Money(金钱) / story(故事) / dollar(美元)
S-005 名词 = reales(银币) / colonies(殖民地) / century(世纪)
2. 代词 · Pronoun
用来替代名词,避免重复。
分类:人称代词(I/you/he/she/it/we/they) · 物主代词(my/your/his/her/its/our/their) · 反身代词(itself/myself) · 指示代词(this/that/these/those) · 不定代词(some/any/all/no one/everyone/everything) · 关系代词(that/which/who/whose) · 疑问代词(what/who/whom)。
S-008 人称 = he(他) — 指代上文的 shopkeeper
S-035 形式宾语 = it — 占位,真宾语在后
S-076 人称 = it(它) — 指代 the dollar
S-009 关系代词 = that / which — 引导定语从句
3. 动词 · Verb
表示动作或状态的词,是句子的核心。每句必须有一个限定动词作谓语。
详细分类见下文 「动词分类」 一节(实义/系/助/情态;及物/不及物)。
S-003 实义动词(及物) = signed(签署)
S-014 系动词 = was(是) — 后接表语
S-029 助动词 = had — 构造使役"have something done"
4. 形容词 · Adjective
修饰名词,描述其性质或状态:young, silver, central, debt-stricken, fragile。
在句中可作:定语(放名词前)或表语/补语(放系动词后)。比较级 -er,最高级 -est;长形容词用 more/most。
S-002 定语用法 = young republic, first silver dollar
S-077 表语用法 = how fragile, how durable
5. 副词 · Adverb
修饰动词、形容词、副词或整句,通常以 -ly 结尾(但不限于)。
语义类型:时间(today, yesterday, often) / 地点(here, abroad, ahead) / 方式(quietly, smoothly, deeply) / 程度(very, almost, quite) / 频率(always, never, rarely) / 语篇(indeed, however, therefore)。
S-008 方式 = thinly?(此句没有,但 silver 上的 sliver 是名词)
S-018 程度+时间 = still(至今仍)
S-022 程度 = almost overnight(几乎一夜之间)
S-056 语篇 = Indeed(诚然)
6. 介词 · Preposition
放在名词或代词之前,与之构成"介词短语",表示时间、地点、方向、方式、原因等关系。
常见介词:in / on / at / by / with / for / from / to / of / about / through / under / between / among / against / during / since / until / without / despite / over。
S-009 介词前置 = of which 371.25 grains were pure silver(of 是介词,提到 which 之前)
S-016 介词 = By insisting on free silver(by 后接动名词)
S-020 介词 = by the Bureau / under Federal Reserve authority
7. 连词 · Conjunction
连接词、短语或分句。
并列连词 (Coordinating):FANBOYS — For/And/Nor/But/Or/Yet/So,连接对等成分。
从属连词 (Subordinating):that/whether/if/although/because/while/when/before/after/since/until/unless/provided/as if 等,引导从句。
相关连词 (Correlative):both...and / either...or / neither...nor / not only...but also / whether...or,成对出现。
S-049 并列 yet = yet bond traders cheered(转折,书面)
S-027 并列 nor = Nor did the country recover quickly
S-018 从属 although = Although Bryan lost the election
S-051 相关 not only/but also = not only an attempt ... but also a quiet admission
8. 冠词 · Article
放在名词前,标明"哪一个"。仅 3 个:
- 定冠词 the — 特指,双方都知道的那个。the dollar(我们都在说的那种)
- 不定冠词 a / an — 泛指,新引入的一个。a 用辅音前,an 用元音前。a story / an attempt
- 零冠词 — 不可数名词、复数泛指、专有名词时不加。Money tells / Spanish coin
S-001 不定冠词 a story · 定冠词 the dollar(同一句两种用法)
S-007 零冠词 = tobacco notes, Spanish coin(复数泛指,不加)
9. 限定词 · Determiner
广义上包括冠词,但还包括其他放在名词前的修饰词:
- 指示限定:this / that / these / those
- 物主限定:my / your / his / her / its / our / their
- 不定限定:every / each / some / any / all / no / both / either / neither / much / many / few / several / either / such
- 数词:one / two / first / second / 1792 / 416
S-007 限定 = every day money(每一种)
S-026 限定 = such a shock / an entire generation
S-046 相关限定 = Either ... or ...
10. 感叹词 · Interjection
独立的情感表达词,语法上不与句子其余成分相连。Ah / Oh / Alas / Indeed(也作语篇词) / Well / Hush / Wow / Ouch。常以逗号或破折号隔开。
S-079 感叹词 = Ah — 与后面的句子用破折号隔开
⓪.5 动词分类 · Types of Verbs
动词是句子的发动机。按"携带语义"和"是否带宾语",可分以下几大类。
1. 实义动词 · Lexical Verb
表达具体动作或状态的"主动词",是句子的语义核心。
S-003 实义 = signed(签署) — 主语 Hamilton 的核心动作
S-022 实义 = made(使) / emerge(崛起)
2. 系动词 · Linking Verb
不带语义,把主语与表语"挂"在一起。常见:be 系列 (am/is/are/was/were/been/being) · become · seem · appear · look · feel · sound · taste · smell · get · grow · turn · remain · stay · prove · go(成为某种状态)。
系动词后接的不是宾语,而是表语(描述主语)。
S-014 系 = was · 表语 = the Resumption Act of 1875
S-015 系 = seemed · 表语 = prudent ... ruinous ...
S-026 系 = was · 表语 = such a shock
S-049 系 = went(变得) · 表语 = bankrupt(破产)
3. 助动词 · Auxiliary Verb(也叫"助词")
不携带主要语义,辅助主动词构造时态、语态、否定、疑问、强调。三大主要助动词:
- be(am/is/are/was/were/been/being) — 构造进行时(be + V-ing)和被动语态(be + V-en)
- have(have/has/had/having) — 构造完成时(have + V-en)
- do(do/does/did) — 构造一般疑问句、否定句、强调式
S-006 助动词 = had been(过去完成进行体: had + been + V-ing)
S-013 被动助动词 = was(过去时被动 was + V-en)
S-027 倒装助动词 = did(Nor did the country recover ...)
S-058 强调助动词 = did(Cassandra did sound)
S-068 4 助动词链 = will have been generating(将来完成进行)
4. 情态动词 · Modal Verb
表达"态度"或"语气":能力、可能性、必要性、推断、建议、决意。后接动词原形,本身不变化(no -s,no -ing,no past)。
完整列表:can/could · may/might · must · shall/should · will/would · ought to · need · dare(半情态:had better, would rather)。详见 ⑤ 情态动词。
S-043 情态 = could move(能搬动)
S-062 情态 = shall not face(法律式将来)
S-082 半情态 = had better watch(强烈忠告)
5. 及物 vs 不及物 · Transitive vs Intransitive
及物动词(transitive)需要带宾语:sign / declare / weigh / replace / underwrite。"V + 谁/什么"。
不及物动词(intransitive)不带宾语:fall / weep / collapse / float / emerge / flow / cheer。"V + (无宾)"。
很多动词两用:The dollar floats freely(不及物) vs He floats a proposal(及物)。
S-049 不及物 = wept(哭泣) / cheered(欢呼) — 后面没宾语
S-013 及物 = was issued(被发行) — 主动是 issue + 宾语
6. 限定动词 vs 非谓语动词 · Finite vs Non-finite
限定动词(finite)有时态、人称、数变化,作句子谓语。"He signs" / "He signed" / "He has signed"。
非谓语动词(non-finite)不变化形式,不能单独作谓语。三种:
- 不定式(to V) — to sign / to be signed
- 动名词(V-ing) — signing
- 分词(V-ing / V-en) — signing(现在分词) / signed(过去分词)
S-072 不定式作主语 = To predict
S-015 动名词作主语 = Returning to the gold standard
S-034 过去分词短语 = designed by Keynes ...
⓪.7 短语 vs 从句 · Phrase vs Clause
短语 · Phrase
一组词紧密配合,共同作一种成分。没有"主语+谓语"结构。
类型:
- 名词短语(NP) — the silver dollar / a quiet admission / every American banknote
- 动词短语(VP) — has floated / will be challenging / had been warning
- 形容词短语(AdjP) — almost three times as often as ...
- 副词短语(AdvP) — almost overnight / very nearly
- 介词短语(PP) — at the Philadelphia mint / by the Bureau / through American memory
- 不定式短语(InfP) — to finance a war / to predict the dollar's future
- 动名词短语(GerP) — Returning to the gold standard / By insisting on free silver
- 分词短语(PartP) — designed by Keynes / slumbering since the 1950s
S-002 介词短语 = at the Philadelphia mint
S-016 动名词短语 = By insisting on free silver
从句 · Clause
一组词,有自己的"主语+谓语"结构。可独立成句(主句)或嵌入主句(从句)。
从句按"在主句中作什么成分"分三大类:
S-014 主语从句 = What restored monetary order after Reconstruction(从句内有主"What" + 谓"restored")
S-009 定语从句 = that Hamilton designed(从句内有主"Hamilton" + 谓"designed")
S-021 状语从句 = When the First World War broke out(从句内有主"the First World War" + 谓"broke out")
主句 vs 从句 · Main vs Subordinate Clause
一个完整句子可由一个主句独立组成,或主句 + 一或多个从句组合而成。
主句能单独成立;从句必须依附于主句。
连接词标志:从属连词(when/while/although/because/if/that/...) 或 关系代词/副词(that/which/who/where/when)。
S-018 主句 = his oratory still echoes through American memory · 从句 = Although Bryan lost the election
S-032 主句 = the dollar today would still hang from a chain of gold · 从句 = If the Great Depression had lasted only briefly(条件状从)
① 五大基本句型
所有的英语句子,都是这五种骨架的扩展。先抓骨架,再看修饰。
③ S + V + IO + DO — 主语 + 双宾动词 + 间宾 + 直宾
give / send / tell / show / offer / lend 等双宾语动词。
He gave me a coin.(他给我一枚硬币。me=间宾,a coin=直宾)
④ S + V + O + C — 主语 + 谓 + 宾 + 宾补
使役动词 (make / let / have) 和感官动词 (see / hear / find) 后宾语 + 补足语。
S-022 The war made the dollar emerge as a credible reserve currency.(战争使美元崛起为储备货币。emerge=宾补)
⑤ S + V + C — 主语 + 系动词 + 表语
系动词 (be / become / seem / appear / look / feel / sound / get) 后接表语,描述主语状态。
S-014 What restored monetary order ... was the Resumption Act of 1875.(...的,正是 1875 年的法案。was=系动词,the Resumption Act=表语)
② 句子成分
每个句子拆开看,是若干"成分"在协作。下面是九个最重要的成分。
主语 · Subject
谁/什么在做这个动作或处于某状态。一句话的"主"。
英语里,主语通常在谓语动词之前(倒装时除外)。可由名词、代词、动名词、不定式、that 从句、wh 从句、whether 从句等充当。
S-014 主 = What restored monetary order(wh-从句作主语)
S-015 主 = Returning to the gold standard(动名词作主语)
S-072 主 = To predict the dollar's future(不定式作主语)
谓语 · Predicate / Verb
告诉我们主语做什么 / 是什么 / 怎么样。围绕动词展开。
可以是单动词、动词短语、助动词 + 主动词、情态动词 + 动词原形,或系动词 + 表语。
S-042 谓 = has floated(现在完成时)
S-068 谓 = will have been generating(将来完成进行时,4 助动词)
宾语 · Object
动作所及之物。"V 谁"、"V 什么"。
三种:直接宾语 (DO)、间接宾语 (IO)、介词宾语 (PO)。可由名词、代词、动名词、不定式、that 从句、wh 从句充当。
S-017 宾从 = that mankind must not be crucified upon a cross of gold
S-073 宾(不定式) = to trust the dollar
表语 · 补语 · Complement
表语 (Subject Complement) 出现在系动词之后,描述主语:X is/becomes/seems Y。
宾补 (Object Complement) 紧跟宾语之后,补足宾语的状态或行动:find / make / consider / cause + O + C。
S-026 表 = such a shock(系动词 was 后)
S-022 宾补 = emerge as a credible reserve currency(make + the dollar + emerge ...)
S-035 宾补 = impossible(found + it + impossible)
状语 · Adverbial
交代动作或状态的时间、地点、方式、原因、目的、结果、程度、条件、让步、伴随。
可由副词、介词短语、不定式、分词短语、状语从句充当。前置时常引发主谓倒装。
S-021 时间状从 = When the First World War broke out
S-031 目的状从 = in order that public confidence might begin to recover
S-019 地点状语前置(倒装) = Out of the Panic of 1907 came the conviction ...
定语 · 修饰语 · Modifier
修饰名词或名词短语:哪一个、什么样的、谁的。
形态丰富:形容词、名词作定、所有格、介词短语、不定式、过去/现在分词短语、定语从句。
S-009 限定性定从 = that Hamilton designed
S-034 过去分词短语 = designed by Keynes and Harry Dexter White
S-044 现在分词短语 = slumbering since the 1950s
同位语 · Appositive
紧跟一个名词,对其重命名或扩展。可由逗号、破折号、冒号引出,或紧贴。
S-055 三项并列同位 = the currency of America, the language of global trade, and the silent partner in every contract
S-064 分词同位短语 = a currency needing neither a government to issue it nor a central bank to control it
独立成分 · Independent Elements
语法上"独立"于句子主干,不充当任何核心成分,但传递语气、衔接、称呼、感叹。
S-076 呼语 = dear reader
S-079 感叹词 = Ah
S-056 语篇衔接词 = Indeed
独立主格 · Absolute Construction
"名词 + 分词/形容词/介词短语" 自带"小主语",修饰整个主句。比从句更紧凑,文学性强。
S-081 独立主格 = Trust restored, the dollar quietly resumed its authority over global trade.
③ 时态 · 12 时态全套 + 3 特殊式
1. 一般现在时 · Simple Present
表示普遍真理、习惯、谚语、客观陈述。基本形式:动词原形(第三人称单数加 -s)。
S-001 Money tells a story; the dollar tells one of the longest.
2. 历史(叙事)现在时 · Historic / Narrative Present
用一般现在时讲述过去事件,使叙事更有临场感。常见于新闻、散文、历史写作。
S-002 The year is 1792, and a young republic stamps out its first silver dollar at the Philadelphia mint.
3. 现在进行时 · Present Continuous
表示当前正在进行的动作,或一段时间内持续进行的动作。形式:am/is/are + V-ing。
(本文以历史叙事为主,见 S-002 narrative present 的同源用法)
4. 现在完成时 · Present Perfect
连接过去起点与现在;表对现在仍有影响的动作或经验。形式:have/has + 过去分词。
S-042 The dollar has floated freely ever since.(美元从那时起便一直自由浮动。)
5. 现在完成进行时 · Present Perfect Continuous
动作从过去开始,持续至今且可能继续。形式:have/has + been + V-ing。
(本文用 past perfect continuous 类比体感,见 S-006)
6. 一般过去时 · Simple Past
叙事的基本时态,描述过去某明确时刻完成的动作。形式:动词过去式。
S-003 On April 2 of that year, Alexander Hamilton signed the Coinage Act into law.
7. 过去进行时 · Past Continuous
两个同时进行的过去动作,常以 while / when 引导。形式:was/were + V-ing。
S-004 While Hamilton was building a national bank, Thomas Jefferson was drafting the very arguments meant to one day destroy it.
8. 过去完成时 · Past Perfect
在过去某参照点之前已发生或延续的动作。"By + 时间"是经典锚点。形式:had + 过去分词。
S-005 By 1811, Spanish reales had circulated through the thirteen colonies for nearly a century.
9. 过去完成进行时 · Past Perfect Continuous
强调动作在过去某点之前已"持续进行"了一段时间。形式:had + been + V-ing。
S-006 For two decades, the Jeffersonians had been warning their countrymen against centralized finance.
10. 一般将来时 · Simple Future (will)
将来某时将发生的动作。表预测、承诺、当场决定。形式:will + 动词原形。
S-065 The dollar will outlive the men who fear for its life.
11. be going to 将来式
基于现有迹象或已有计划的将来。形式:am/is/are going to + 动词原形。比 will 更"已成定局"。
S-066 Some economists insist that, sooner or later, every government is going to issue a digital version of its own currency.
12. 将来进行时 · Future Continuous
将来某时正在进行,或将来一段时间内持续展开。形式:will + be + V-ing。
S-063 Within a decade, a new species of money will be challenging the dollar's monopoly on global reserves.
13. 将来完成时 · Future Perfect
在将来某参照点之前已完成的动作。形式:will + have + 过去分词。
S-067 By 2030, every major central bank will have launched, or at least tested, its own central-bank digital currency.
14. 将来完成进行时 · Future Perfect Continuous
至将来某点持续进行的动作。十二大时态中最罕见。形式:will + have + been + V-ing。
S-068 By the time you finish reading this article, the world will have been generating new dollars, new debts, and new questions every second.
15. 过去将来时 · Future-in-the-Past
从过去角度看的将来。形式:would / was-going-to / was-about-to + 动词原形。
S-004 嵌入用法 ... arguments meant to one day destroy it(从过去看的将来)
S-041 ... what would later be called the Nixon Shock.
④ 语态 · 八种被动
1. 一般现在时被动 · Simple Present Passive
am/is/are + 过去分词。表当前事实的被动。
S-020 Today, every American banknote is printed by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing under Federal Reserve authority.
2. 现在完成时被动 · Present Perfect Passive
have/has + been + 过去分词。融合"完成体"与"被动"。
S-050 By the mid-1980s, inflation has been beaten back, and the long bull market in U.S. assets has begun in earnest.
3. 一般过去时被动 · Past Passive
was/were + 过去分词。
S-013 The greenback was issued in 1862 to finance a war the Treasury could no longer pay for in coin.
4. 过去完成时被动 · Past Perfect Passive
had + been + 过去分词。
S-040 By the late 1960s, more than half of America's postwar gold had been spent abroad.
5. 一般将来时被动 · Future Passive
will + be + 过去分词。
S-069 If the dollar ever does lose its reserve status, every commodity, every loan, and every contract on earth will be rewritten.
6. 情态被动 · Modal Passive
情态动词 + be + 过去分词。must/can/may/should/will + be + V-en。
S-017 ... that mankind must not be crucified upon a cross of gold.
S-060 Lehman Brothers must be remembered as the night the old order cracked.
7. Get-被动 · Get-Passive
get + 过去分词。比 be-被动更口语,强调"突然发生变化",常带负面或意外色彩。
S-028 On April 5, 1933, every gold coin in private hands got recalled to the Treasury.
8. 使役被动 · Causative "have something done"
have + 宾语 + 过去分词 = "让某物被(他人)做"。对照 make/let + 不带 to 不定式。
S-029 Within weeks, Roosevelt had the confiscated metal reminted into bullion bars and shipped to Fort Knox.
⑤ 情态动词 · 完整覆盖
1. can / could · 能力或可能
表能力、可能、许可。could 是 can 的过去式或虚拟形式。
S-043 After 1971, a single sentence from a central banker could move trillions of dollars overnight.
2. may / might · 可能性
表"也许、可能"。might 比 may 语气更弱、更不确定。
S-047 For a moment, it seemed that the dollar might dissolve along with the country's patience.
3. must · 必须 / 推断
表"必须"(义务)或"一定"(推断)。语气最强。
S-051 ... a quiet admission that even superpowers must compromise.(义务)
4. should / ought to · 道义责任 / 建议
表道义责任、建议、忠告。语气比 must 缓和。
S-033 Roosevelt argued, again and again, that no civilized nation should ever again allow gold to dictate the limits of human ambition.
5. shall · 正式 / 法律式
表约束性承诺或禁止。现代美式英语口语已多以 will 代之,但条约、合同、法律仍保留 shall。
S-062 Central banks declared, with rare unanimity, that the world shall not face another Lehman.
6. dare · 敢(半情态)
作半情态时后接动词原形(无 to)。多见于否定/疑问:dare not / daren't / how dare you。
S-048 In 1979, Volcker raised the federal funds rate to a level no banker dared imagine.
7. would · 过去习惯
表过去反复发生的习惯动作。和 used to 在表"反复动作"时可换用,但 would 不能表过去状态。
S-008 On Saturday mornings, a country shopkeeper would shave a thin sliver off any silver dollar he did not trust.
8. used to · 过去常做
used to + 动词原形。表过去经常做但现在不再做的习惯。注意区别 be used to + V-ing(习惯于)。
S-007 American farmers used to carry tobacco notes, Spanish coin, and even gold dust as everyday money.
9. had better · 强烈忠告
had better + 动词原形。表强烈建议、警告。语气比 should 更急迫,带"否则后果不堪"的潜台词。否定式:had better not。
S-082 Whoever holds dollars in the years ahead had better watch the politics that back them.
10. would rather · 宁愿
would rather + 动词原形 (+ than + 动词原形)。表"宁愿做 X 而不做 Y"。如果跟从句:would rather + S + 过去时(虚拟,与现在事实相反)。
S-083 Most savers, even today, would rather keep dollars than hold gold for a generation.
11. 情态完成式 · Modal Perfect
情态动词 + have + 过去分词。表对过去事实的推断、可能、遗憾。
S-011 ... the Panic of 1837 might never have torn the frontier apart.(might have:可能,过去)
S-061 Without the Federal Reserve's emergency intervention, every major bank could have collapsed within a fortnight.(could have:本可,过去)
S-074 Many a saver in 2008 might have wished that he had bought gold ...(might have wished:推断过去)
⑥ 非谓语动词
1. 不带 to 不定式 · Bare Infinitive
使役动词 (make / let / have) + 宾 + 动词原形 (无 to);感官动词 (see / hear / watch / feel) 同此。help 可带可不带 to。
S-022 The war made the dollar emerge ... as a credible reserve currency.
2. 不定式作主语 · To-inf as Subject
to + 动词原形 整个短语作主语。强调动作本身。
S-072 To predict the dollar's future is, in the end, to predict the future of the United States itself.
3. 不定式作宾语 · To-inf as Object
动词后接不定式作宾语。常用动词:learn / want / hope / decide / plan / refuse / agree / manage / intend。
S-073 Most of us have learned to trust the dollar without thinking about why.
4. 不定式表目的 · To-inf of Purpose
to + 动词原形 表"为了做..."。比 in order to / so as to 简洁。
S-013 The greenback was issued in 1862 to finance a war ...
5. 动名词作主语 · Gerund as Subject
V-ing 短语作主语。比不定式作主语更强调"该活动本身"。
S-015 Returning to the gold standard seemed prudent to Eastern bankers and ruinous to Western farmers.
6. 介词后接动名词 · Gerund after Preposition
介词后必须用 V-ing。"by V-ing" = "通过做..."。"in V-ing" / "without V-ing" 类似。
S-016 By insisting on free silver, William Jennings Bryan rallied a generation of debt-stricken farmers behind him.
7. 过去分词短语 · Past Participial Phrase
V-en + 补足成分 作定语,带被动义。等价于省略关系代词的定从,但更简洁。
S-034 The Bretton Woods system, designed by Keynes and Harry Dexter White, fixed ...
8. 现在分词短语 · Present Participial Phrase
V-ing + 补足成分 作定语,主动+进行义。对照过去分词短语(被动义)。
S-044 Inflation, slumbering since the 1950s, awoke in the 1970s with sudden ferocity.
9. 简化关系从句 · Reduced Relative
完整定从 "which is V-en/-ing ..." 省略 "which is",只留分词。
S-070 Money issued by an algorithm rather than a parliament is something the world has never quite known before.
10. 独立主格 · Absolute Construction
"名词 + 分词/形容词/介词短语" 自带"小主语",修饰主句。文学性强。
S-081 Trust restored, the dollar quietly resumed its authority over global trade.
⑦ 名词性从句
that / what / whether / who / which / where / when / why / how 引导的从句,作主语、宾语、表语、同位语。
1. that 引导的主语从句
that + 句子,整体作主语。常用形式主语 it 替代,真主放后。
That gold survives is no surprise.(此句作示范,本文未直接使用此结构作主语)
2. that 引导的宾语从句
动词后接 that 从句作宾语。that 可省略。常见动词:say, declare, argue, insist, believe, know, think, hope。
S-017 ... Bryan declared that mankind must not be crucified upon a cross of gold.
S-033 Roosevelt argued ... that no civilized nation should ever again allow gold ...
S-066 Some economists insist that ... every government is going to issue ...
3. wh- 主语从句(假分裂句)
what / whoever / whatever 等引导的从句作主语。"What ... was X" 是 pseudo-cleft 强调结构。
S-014 What restored monetary order after Reconstruction was the Resumption Act of 1875.
4. wh- 宾语从句
what / who / where / when 等引导的从句作宾语。
S-041 On August 15, 1971, Richard Nixon announced what would later be called the Nixon Shock.
5. whether / if 名词从句
由"是否..."的问句变成名词性结构。作主语只能用 whether,不能用 if;作宾语时两者都可。
S-036 Whether Bretton Woods could survive a quarter-century was a question its architects scarcely asked.
6. that 同位语从句
that 从句紧跟抽象名词 (fact, idea, condition, hope, news, possibility),解释其内容。区别于定从(后者修饰)。
S-019 同位 = the conviction that the country needed a permanent central bank
S-037 同位 = a single condition: that no one ask for gold(虚拟同位)
⑧ 定语从句
1. 限定性定语从句 · Restrictive Relative
限定先行词,不可省、不加逗号。关系代词:that / which / who / whom / whose。关系副词:when / where / why。可省略关系词成"接触从句"。
S-009 The dollar that Hamilton designed weighed exactly 416 grains ...
S-008 接触从句 = any silver dollar [that] he did not trust
2. 非限定性定语从句 · Non-restrictive Relative
逗号隔开,补充信息可省略不影响主句意思。不能用 that 引导。
S-010 Andrew Jackson, who distrusted bankers as deeply as he distrusted aristocrats, vetoed the Second Bank's charter ...
3. 介词前置定语从句 · Prep + Relative Pronoun
介词提到关系代词之前,正式书面语。"of which" / "in which" / "for whom" / "to whom"。
S-009 ... 416 grains, of which 371.25 grains were pure silver.(of=介词前置)
4. 简化定从 · Reduced Relative
省略 "which is/was",只留过去分词或现在分词。
S-070 Money issued by an algorithm rather than a parliament ...
⑨ 状语从句 · 八大类
1. 时间状语从句 · Adv. of Time
when / while / as / before / after / since / until / once 等引导。
S-021 When the First World War broke out, European gold flowed into American vaults ...
2. 原因状语从句 · Adv. of Cause
because / since / as / for 等引导。"not because X, but because Y" 是相关并列。
S-054 They held those dollars not because they loved Washington, but because they had nowhere else to park their savings.
3. 让步状语从句 · Adv. of Concession
although / though / even though / while 等引导。表"尽管 X,但 Y"。
S-018 Although Bryan lost the election, his oratory still echoes through American memory.
4. 条件状语从句 · Adv. of Condition
if / unless / provided (that) / providing / as long as / on condition that / supposing / in case 等引导。条件句也有此功能。
S-052 If the dollar were to weaken further, American manufacturing might at last find its footing.
S-071 Provided that trust survives, the dollar will continue to underwrite the architecture of global finance.
5. 目的状语从句 · Adv. of Purpose
in order that / so that 引导,从句中常含 may/might/can/could。比 to + V 更正式。
S-031 Banks were closed for four days, in order that public confidence might begin to recover.
6. 结果状语从句 · Adv. of Result
"so + 形/副 + that ..." 与 "such + (a/an) + 形 + 名 + that ..." 表程度-结果。
S-025 The 1920s economy grew so confidently that few Americans imagined any cliff ahead.
S-026 The collapse of October 1929 was such a shock that an entire generation lost faith in finance.
7. 方式状语从句 · Adv. of Manner
as if / as though 引导,表"似乎,仿佛"。与事实不符时谓语降一格(虚拟):现在事实用过去时(were 不用 was);过去事实用过去完成时。
S-038 For two decades, the system worked smoothly, as if gold and the dollar were a single currency.
8. 比较状语从句 · Adv. of Comparison
than / as ... as 引导。比较级用 -er + than 或 more + 形/副 + than;同级用 as + 形/副 + as;倍数 + as ... as。
S-045 ... prices rose faster than wages ...(比较级)
S-010 ... distrusted bankers as deeply as he distrusted aristocrats ...(同级)
S-085 ... three times as often as the euro and the yen combined.(倍数)
⑩ 虚拟语气 · 八种
1. 第一条件句 · Type 1(真实将来)
"If + S + 一般现在,S + will + 动词原形"。表对将来真实可能事件的假设。
S-069 If the dollar ever does lose its reserve status, every commodity, every loan, and every contract on earth will be rewritten.(从句中 does 是强调式)
2. 第二条件句 · Type 2(与现在事实相反)
"If + S + 过去时(were 用于所有人称),S + would/might/could + 动词原形"。变体 "If S were to V" 让假设语气更强。
S-052 If the dollar were to weaken further, American manufacturing might at last find its footing.
3. 第三条件句 · Type 3(与过去事实相反)
"If + S + had + V-en, S + would/could/might + have + V-en"。表过去未发生的假设。
S-057 If regulators had looked closer, the storm of 2008 could have been seen long before it broke.
4. 混合条件句 · Mixed Conditional
条件用第三类(与过去相反),结果用第二类(与现在相反)。"过去若 X,现在就 Y"。
S-032 If the Great Depression had lasted only briefly, the dollar today would still hang from a chain of gold.
5. 倒装条件句 · Inverted Conditional
If 从句倒装,if 省略。"Had + S + V-en"(三类)/"Were + S + ..."(二类)/"Should + S + V"(一类)。正式书面语。
S-011 Had Jackson trusted central banking, the Panic of 1837 might never have torn the frontier apart.
6. wish + 虚拟从句
与现在事实相反:wish + S + 过去时;与过去事实相反:wish + S + had + V-en。
S-074 Many a saver in 2008 might have wished that he had bought gold at the start of the decade.
7. 命令性虚拟 · Mandative Subjunctive
在 insist / demand / require / suggest / propose / request / recommend 等动词后的 that 从句中,动词用原形(无视主语和时态)。同位语从句中也用此结构(condition / demand / suggestion 等抽象名词)。
S-024 ... the French government insisted that gold be redistributed ...(动词原形 be)
S-037 The new system rested upon a single condition: that no one ask for gold.(动词原形 ask)
8. It's high time + 过去虚拟
"It's (high / about) time + that 从句",从句用过去时(虚拟用法,实际指现在或将来),表"该是时候了,而且早该做了"。
S-084 It's high time the world admitted that no single currency can carry the global economy alone.
9. 化石化虚拟 · Formal Subjunctive
古英语沿袭的固定形式:Be it noted / Be it known / Long live the king / God save the queen / Come what may / So be it / Suffice it to say。
S-080 Be it noted, then: the dollar's long day, like this sentence, has only just begun.
⑪ 倒装 · 强调 · 省略 · it 句型
1. 否定前置倒装 · Negative-fronting Inversion
never / hardly / seldom / rarely / no sooner / not until / little 等否定/限制副词前置 → 主谓倒装。
S-030 Never before had a peacetime president dared to redraw the price of gold by decree.
2. only 前置倒装 · Only-fronting
"Only + 状语" 前置时,主句倒装。强调"直到 X 才 Y"。
S-039 Only when France began demanding bullion for its dollars did the cracks become visible.
3. 地点倒装 · Locative Inversion
地点/方向状语前置时,主谓倒装(动词放主语前)。长主语挪到句末符合"末端重心"。
S-019 Out of the Panic of 1907 came the conviction that the country needed a permanent central bank.
4. nor / neither 前置倒装
否定连词 Nor / Neither 置句首,引发主谓倒装("Nor + aux + S + V")。追加平行的否定陈述。
S-027 Nor did the country recover quickly: another decade of stagnation lay ahead.
5. 分裂句 · It-cleft
"It was/is + 强调成分 + that/who + 其余",拆分句子以突出某一成分。
S-012 It was the Civil War, more than any economic doctrine, that finally drove Washington to print paper money on a national scale.
6. 假分裂句 · Pseudo-cleft
"What ... + 系动词 + 强调焦点"。把整个 wh-从句作主语,与焦点成分等价对接。
S-014 What restored monetary order after Reconstruction was the Resumption Act of 1875.
7. 强调助动词 do · Emphatic Do
do/does/did + 动词原形 用于肯定句,坚称某事确曾发生。朗读时 do 重读。
S-058 ... the warnings, which Cassandra after Cassandra did sound, went unheeded.
8. 形式宾语 it · Anticipatory it for Object
"find / think / consider / make / believe + it + 形容词 + 真宾语(不定式或 that 从句)"。真宾语过长时把它后挪。
S-035 Keynes found it impossible to persuade the Americans of his bancor proposal.
9. there 存在句 · There-Existential
there + 动词。最常与 be 搭配 (there is/were),也可与 came / arose / emerged / exists 等不及物动词搭配。
S-059 There came a Sunday in September 2008 when Wall Street's old order finally cracked.
⑫ 比较与并列
1. 比较级 · Comparative
"形/副 + -er + than" 或 "more + 形/副 + than"。比较两个不相等事物。
S-045 Year after year, prices rose faster than wages ...
2. 最高级 · Superlative
"the + 形最高级 / most + 形"。常与 ever 在定从中连用,推至有史以来。
S-053 ... the largest store of foreign exchange the world had ever known.
3. 同级比较 · as ... as
as + 形/副 + as,表程度相等。
S-010 ... distrusted bankers as deeply as he distrusted aristocrats ...
4. 倍数比较 · Multiplier
"倍数 + as + 形/副 + as ..."(twice as much, three times as often)。亦可用"倍数 + 比较级 + than"。
S-085 ... the dollar is traded almost three times as often as the euro and the yen combined.
5. both ... and
并列两个对等成分。连接主语时谓语用复数。
S-023 Both Britain and France borrowed heavily from New York bankers ...
6. either ... or
提供两种可能。连接主语时谓语取就近原则。
S-046 Either confidence had to return, or the dollar itself would dissolve.
7. neither ... nor
并列两个否定项 = "既不 X 也不 Y"。谓语就近原则。
S-064 Bitcoin, a currency needing neither a government to issue it nor a central bank to control it ...
8. not only ... but also
并列两个对等成分,带递进强调。两半语法结构必须平行。
S-051 The Plaza Accord of 1985 was not only an attempt to weaken the dollar, but also a quiet admission that even superpowers must compromise.
9. FANBOYS 并列连词
For / And / Nor / But / Or / Yet / So 七个并列连词。各有语义:and 顺承 · but 转折 · or 选择 · yet 让步转折(更书面) · so 因果 · for 解释 · nor 否定追加。
S-049 yet · Borrowers wept and farmers went bankrupt, yet bond traders cheered.
S-027 nor · Nor did the country recover quickly ...
⑬ 独立成分(再细分)
1. 呼语 · Vocative
称呼听者/读者的名词或名词短语,总以逗号隔开。常见于散文、演讲。
S-076 呼语 = dear reader · The dollar, dear reader, is more than money: ...
2. 感叹词 · Interjection
Ah / Oh / Alas / Indeed / Well / Hush / Wow 等。语法上独立,以破折号或逗号隔开,传达情感而非命题内容。
S-079 Ah — and money, century after century, keeps telling the human story.
3. 语篇衔接词 · Discourse Marker
Indeed / Moreover / Nevertheless / Therefore / Furthermore / Crucially / Thus 等。标示与前文的逻辑关系,作用于句子之上。
S-056 Indeed · Indeed, Alan Greenspan presided over a period now called the Great Moderation ...
4. 修辞反问句 · Rhetorical Question
提问不是为了得到回答,而是为了表达态度或引出后续陈述。常由说话人自答。
S-075 Will the dollar last another century? — that, no honest economist can answer with certainty.
5. 感叹句 · Exclamation
"How + 形/副"(强调程度)或"What + (a/an) + 形 + 名"。后续可主谓正常或倒装。
S-077 How fragile, and yet how durable, this single piece of paper turns out to be!
⑭ 功能词
连词、介词、冠词、限定词等,本身没有"实义"、但担负起句子结构粘合作用。
- FANBOYS 并列连词 — For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So(详见 ⑫)
- 介词 — in / on / at / by / with / for / through / about / from / to / under / above / between ...
- 冠词与限定词 — a / an / the / this / that / these / those / my / your / his / every / each / some / any / all / no
⑮ 从句引导词
"开启"一个从句的词。详细分类见上方"⑦ 名词性从句"、"⑧ 定语从句"、"⑨ 状语从句"。
- 名词性从句引导词 — that / whether / if / what / who / which / where / when / why / how
- 关系代词(定从) — that / which / who / whom / whose
- 关系副词(定从) — when / where / why
- 从属连词(状从) — when, while, as, before, after, since, until, once, because, although, though, even though, if, unless, provided, supposing, as if, as though, so that, in order that